Affinage

CTSG

Cathepsin G · UniProt P08311

Round 2 corrected
Length
255 aa
Mass
28.8 kDa
Annotated
2026-04-28
130 papers in source corpus 14 papers cited in narrative 14 extracted findings

Mechanistic narrative

Synthesis pass · prose summary of the discoveries below

Cathepsin G is a chymotrypsin-like serine protease synthesized as a zymogen, activated by removal of a dipeptide propeptide, and stored in neutrophil and monocyte azurophil granules, from which it is released upon stimulation to execute diverse extracellular and intracellular functions (PMID:3304423, PMID:2681419). Upon degranulation or neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) release, cathepsin G cleaves VCAM-1 and CXCR4/SDF-1 to mobilize hematopoietic progenitor cells, activates PAR4 on platelets to promote aggregation, and processes pro-IL-1α into its mature form to drive endothelial activation and tissue factor expression (PMID:10702240, PMID:11520773, PMID:12531874, PMID:29976772). Within the phagosome, K⁺-flux-dependent release from proteoglycan matrix activates cathepsin G for microbial killing independently of the respiratory burst, and surface-bound or syndecan-1-ectodomain-associated cathepsin G resists physiological serpin inhibitors, enabling sustained localized proteolysis (PMID:11907569, PMID:7593196, PMID:9565572). In monocytes, cathepsin G catalyzes histone H3 N-terminal clipping (H3ΔN), a chromatin modification enriched at actively transcribed loci that restricts chromatin accessibility and is repressed during macrophage differentiation (PMID:34017121).

Mechanistic history

Synthesis pass · year-by-year structured walk · 10 steps
  1. 1987 High

    Molecular cloning revealed cathepsin G as a serine protease with chymotrypsin-like specificity and an activation dipeptide, establishing the gene's identity and zymogen processing mechanism.

    Evidence cDNA cloning from U937 cells with full-length sequence analysis

    PMID:3304423

    Open questions at the time
    • Crystal structure not yet determined at this stage
    • Activation peptide removal mechanism in vivo uncharacterized
  2. 1989 High

    Identification of cathepsin G as an antimicrobial effector and a releasable product of monocytes as well as neutrophils broadened its cellular origins and established a direct role in innate defense.

    Evidence Biochemical fractionation of azurophil granule contents with antimicrobial assays; quantification of cathepsin G release from primary human monocytes

    PMID:2501794 PMID:2681419

    Open questions at the time
    • Relative contribution to killing versus other granule antimicrobials unclear
    • Mechanism of membrane association in monocytes not defined
  3. 1995 High

    Demonstration that cell-surface-bound cathepsin G remains catalytically active yet resistant to physiological serpins explained how localized proteolysis persists in an inhibitor-rich milieu.

    Evidence Surface expression quantification on stimulated neutrophils with enzymatic activity and serpin inhibition assays

    PMID:7593196

    Open questions at the time
    • Molecular basis of inhibitor resistance on the cell surface not resolved
    • Identity of surface tethering partner not established
  4. 1998 High

    High-affinity binding of syndecan-1 ectodomains to cathepsin G provided a molecular explanation for protease shielding from serpins in wound fluids, extending the inhibitor-resistance concept to a defined proteoglycan partner.

    Evidence Quantitative binding measurements (Kd 56 nM), second-order rate constant determinations, heparan sulfate enzymatic degradation in wound fluids

    PMID:9565572

    Open questions at the time
    • Whether syndecan-1 also accounts for cell-surface retention not tested
    • Structural basis of the cathepsin G–heparan sulfate interaction undefined
  5. 2000 High

    Identification of PAR4 as the platelet receptor cleaved by cathepsin G resolved the long-standing question (since 1988) of how neutrophil-derived cathepsin G activates platelets.

    Evidence Calcium mobilization in PAR4-transfected cells and oocytes, antibody blockade, receptor desensitization, neutrophil-platelet co-culture

    PMID:10702240

    Open questions at the time
    • Exact cleavage site on PAR4 not mapped
    • Relative contribution versus thrombin-mediated PAR4 activation in vivo unknown
  6. 2001 High

    Cathepsin G was shown to cleave VCAM-1 on bone marrow stroma and to cleave CXCR4 and SDF-1, establishing it as a key proteolytic driver of G-CSF-induced hematopoietic progenitor mobilization.

    Evidence In vivo mobilization models, in vitro substrate cleavage assays, chemotaxis abolition, flow cytometry

    PMID:11520773 PMID:12531874

    Open questions at the time
    • Whether cathepsin G is individually necessary or redundant with elastase/proteinase 3 in HPC mobilization not genetically resolved
    • Cleavage sites on VCAM-1 not precisely mapped
  7. 2002 High

    Genetic ablation of neutrophil granule proteases demonstrated that cathepsin G and related proteases—not reactive oxygen species—are the principal effectors of phagosomal bacterial killing, with K⁺ flux identified as the ionic activation switch.

    Evidence Protease-deficient knockout mice, in vivo Staphylococcal and Candidal infection, phagosomal ion flux measurements

    PMID:11907569

    Open questions at the time
    • Individual contribution of cathepsin G versus elastase/proteinase 3 to microbial killing not dissected
    • Bacterial substrates responsible for killing not identified
  8. 2018 High

    Discovery that NET-associated cathepsin G processes pro-IL-1α into mature IL-1α, which then activates endothelium for tissue factor expression, linked cathepsin G to thromboinflammation.

    Evidence NET isolation, cathepsin G inhibitor blockade, IL-1α neutralizing antibody, tissue factor activity assays

    PMID:29976772

    Open questions at the time
    • Cleavage site on pro-IL-1α not mapped
    • In vivo relevance for thrombotic disease not demonstrated
  9. 2021 High

    Cathepsin G was identified as a nuclear protease catalyzing histone H3 N-terminal clipping in monocytes, revealing an unexpected epigenetic function that restricts chromatin accessibility during the monocyte-to-macrophage transition.

    Evidence siRNA/inhibitor depletion of NSPs, ATAC-seq, histone mark detection, patient monocyte analysis (systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis)

    PMID:34017121

    Open questions at the time
    • Whether cathepsin G alone is sufficient for H3ΔN or requires cooperative activity with elastase/proteinase 3 not resolved
    • Mechanism of cathepsin G nuclear import not established
    • H3 cleavage site specificity not precisely mapped
  10. 2023 Medium

    Overexpression and knockdown studies in colorectal cancer cells placed cathepsin G upstream of Akt/mTOR suppression and apoptosis induction, suggesting a tumor-suppressive role.

    Evidence Gain/loss-of-function in CRC cell lines, in vivo xenograft, pharmacological Akt inhibition (MK2206)

    PMID:37151875

    Open questions at the time
    • Direct substrate linking cathepsin G protease activity to Akt pathway suppression not identified
    • Not confirmed in genetic models or patient-derived material
    • Whether catalytic activity is required not tested

Open questions

Synthesis pass · forward-looking unresolved questions
  • The molecular basis by which cathepsin G is retained on the neutrophil surface, the precise structural determinants of its serpin resistance when matrix-bound, the mechanism of its nuclear import in monocytes, and the individual (non-redundant) contribution of cathepsin G versus co-stored NSPs remain unresolved.
  • Surface tethering receptor identity unknown
  • Individual genetic contribution to microbial killing and HPC mobilization not dissected from elastase/proteinase 3
  • Nuclear translocation mechanism uncharacterized

Mechanism profile

Synthesis pass · controlled-vocabulary classification · explore literature graph →
Molecular activity
GO:0140096 catalytic activity, acting on a protein 6 GO:0016787 hydrolase activity 5
Localization
GO:0005576 extracellular region 4 GO:0005764 lysosome 3 GO:0005634 nucleus 1 GO:0005886 plasma membrane 1
Pathway
R-HSA-168256 Immune System 4 R-HSA-109582 Hemostasis 3 R-HSA-4839726 Chromatin organization 1
Partners
CXCL12CXCR4H3IL1APAR4SDC1VCAM1

Evidence

Reading pass · 14 per-paper findings extracted from the source corpus
Year Finding Method Journal Conf PMIDs
1987 Human cathepsin G was molecularly cloned from U937 leukemic cell RNA. Sequence analysis revealed it is a serine proteinase with chymotrypsin-like specificity, sharing 56% identity with a mouse cytotoxic T lymphocyte proteinase and 47% with rat mast cell proteinase II. The sequence predicts biosynthesis involves removal of a two-amino-acid activation peptide during or before packaging into storage granules. cDNA library construction and sequencing from lambda gt11, amino acid sequence analysis Biochemistry High 3304423
1988 Cathepsin G released by fMet-Leu-Phe-stimulated neutrophils is a strong platelet agonist, inducing calcium mobilization, 5-HT secretion, and aggregation. The activity was inhibited by alpha1-antitrypsin, N-tosyl-L-Phe-chloromethane, and anti-cathepsin G antiserum, but not anti-elastase antiserum. Purified cathepsin G co-purified with the platelet-activating activity, confirming cathepsin G as the mediator. Biochemical purification, inhibitor profiling, immunodepletion with specific antiserum, calcium mobilization assays, platelet aggregation assays The Biochemical Journal High 3390156
1989 Human peripheral blood monocytes contain cathepsin G (and elastase) originally described in neutrophil azurophil granules. In response to PMA stimulation, monocytes release 39–53% of their cathepsin G content within 60 min. A subpopulation (~15–20%) of adherent phorbol-stimulated monocytes shows localized cathepsin G-mediated proteolysis of surface-bound fibronectin even in the presence of proteinase inhibitors. Immunoquantification of enzyme content, release assays with stimuli, proteolysis of fibronectin-coated surfaces, proteinase inhibitor profiling Journal of Immunology High 2681419
1989 Cathepsin G was identified among nine polypeptide peaks with antibiotic activity resolved from human polymorphonuclear leukocyte azurophil granule membranes. Quantitative recovery of protein and activity allowed assessment of contribution to respiratory-burst-independent antimicrobial capacity of neutrophils. Biochemical fractionation of azurophil granule membranes, N-terminal sequence analysis, quantitative antimicrobial activity assays Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America High 2501794
1995 Human neutrophils express persistently active cell surface-bound cathepsin G. Unstimulated neutrophils have minimal surface expression; phorbol ester induces a ~30-fold increase. LPS priming followed by fMLP stimulation produces up to 10-fold increase in surface expression. Cell surface-bound cathepsin G remains catalytically active yet is remarkably resistant to inhibition by naturally occurring proteinase inhibitors (alpha1-antichymotrypsin), enabling localized proteolysis at the cell surface. Surface expression assays, enzymatic activity assays on intact cells, inhibitor profiling with physiological inhibitors, LPS/fMLP stimulation experiments The Journal of Cell Biology High 7593196
1998 Syndecan-1 ectodomain binds cathepsin G with high affinity (Kd = 56 nM) and protects cathepsin G from inhibition by alpha1-antichymotrypsin and SCCA-2, decreasing the second-order rate constant for protease-antiprotease association by up to 3700-fold. Enzymatic removal of heparan sulfate from wound fluid reduces cathepsin G activity, indicating that shed syndecan ectodomains regulate cathepsin G proteolytic balance in wound fluids. Binding affinity measurements, second-order rate constant measurements for protease-inhibitor association, heparan sulfate enzymatic degradation, immunodepletion from wound fluids The Journal of Biological Chemistry High 9565572
2000 Cathepsin G activates protease-activated receptor-4 (PAR4) on human platelets. Cathepsin G triggered calcium mobilization in PAR4-transfected fibroblasts and PAR4-expressing Xenopus oocytes. An antibody against the PAR4 thrombin cleavage site blocked platelet activation by cathepsin G. PAR4 desensitization abolished cathepsin G-induced calcium signaling. In contrast, PAR1 inhibition had no effect. Neutrophil activation with fMLP triggered PAR4-dependent calcium signaling in nearby platelets, which was blocked by the PAR4 antibody. Calcium mobilization assays in transfected fibroblasts and Xenopus oocytes, antibody blocking experiments, receptor desensitization assays, neutrophil-platelet co-culture experiments The Journal of Biological Chemistry High 10702240
2001 Purified cathepsin G (lysosomal) cleaves PARP-1 in vitro, producing a ~50 kDa fragment characteristic of necrotic (not apoptotic) PARP-1 cleavage. This cleavage pattern matches that observed in Jurkat cells treated with necrotic inducers (H2O2, EtOH, HgCl2), implicating lysosomal cathepsin G release during necrosis as a mechanism for PARP-1 proteolysis. In vitro cleavage assay with purified cathepsin G, comparison with lysosomal fraction activity, SDS-PAGE analysis of cleavage products Cell Death and Differentiation High 11536009
2001 Cathepsin G (together with neutrophil elastase) cleaves VCAM-1 expressed by bone marrow stromal cells. Both proteases were identified from neutrophils accumulating in the bone marrow during G-CSF-induced hematopoietic progenitor cell mobilization. Proteolytic cleavage of VCAM-1 in vivo coincided with HPC egress, suggesting cathepsin G-mediated VCAM-1 cleavage is a critical step in mobilization. In vivo mobilization model, identification of proteases by inhibitor profiling and direct assay, in vitro cleavage of VCAM-1, immunohistochemistry Blood High 11520773
2002 Cathepsin G (and elastase) are activated by K+ ion flux into the neutrophil phagosome during killing of ingested microorganisms. The rise in ionic strength displaces cationic granule proteases including cathepsin G from anionic sulphated proteoglycan matrix, activating them. Mice deficient in neutrophil granule proteases (including cathepsin G) but with normal superoxide production were unable to resist Staphylococcal and Candidal infections, demonstrating that proteases are primarily responsible for bacterial killing. Mouse knockout model (protease-deficient neutrophils), in vivo infection assays, ion flux measurements, ionic strength manipulation experiments Nature High 11907569
2003 Cathepsin G (and elastase/proteinase 3) cleave the N-terminus of chemokine receptor CXCR4 on hematopoietic progenitor cells during G-CSF- or cyclophosphamide-induced mobilization in vivo. Cleavage of CXCR4 abolished chemotaxis in response to SDF-1/CXCL12, and cathepsin G also directly cleaved and inactivated SDF-1 in the bone marrow, disrupting retention of HPCs. In vivo mobilization model, in vitro protease cleavage of CXCR4 and SDF-1, chemotaxis assays, flow cytometry The Journal of Clinical Investigation High 12531874
2018 Cathepsin G, present in neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), promotes endothelial cell (EC) activation and tissue factor production. Mechanistically, cathepsin G cleaves pro-IL-1α, releasing the more potent mature IL-1α form, which then activates ECs. Inhibition of cathepsin G blocked NET-induced VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and tissue factor expression. NET isolation and EC exposure, protease inhibitor experiments, IL-1α neutralizing antibody, anti-IL-1Ra experiments, tissue factor activity assays, clotting assays Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology High 29976772
2021 Cathepsin G (CTSG), along with neutrophil elastase (ELANE) and proteinase 3 (PRTN3), catalyzes proteolytic cleavage of histone H3 amino terminus (H3ΔN) in human peripheral blood monocytes. This histone mark is abundant in monocytes and is repressed as monocytes differentiate into macrophages. Simultaneous NSP depletion in monocytic cells causes loss of H3ΔN and increased chromatin accessibility. H3ΔN is enriched at permissive chromatin and actively transcribed genes, and is reduced in monocytes from systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis patients. Integrative epigenomic analysis, NSP depletion (siRNA/inhibitors), chromatin accessibility assays (ATAC-seq), histone mark detection, patient sample analysis Nature Immunology High 34017121
2023 CTSG overexpression in colorectal cancer cells suppresses Akt/mTOR signaling and elevates apoptotic markers (increased apoptosis), while CTSG silencing activates Akt/mTOR signaling and inhibits apoptotic markers. The Akt inhibitor MK2206 abolishes CTSG-silencing-induced cell viability and Bcl2 upregulation both in vitro and in vivo, placing CTSG upstream of Akt/mTOR/Bcl2 as a tumor suppressor. CTSG overexpression and knockdown in CRC cell lines, in vivo xenograft assays, Western blotting for Akt/mTOR/Bcl2 pathway components, pharmacological Akt inhibition (MK2206) International Journal of Biological Sciences Medium 37151875

Source papers

Stage 0 corpus · 130 papers · ranked by NIH iCite citations
Year Title Journal Citations PMID
2002 Generation and initial analysis of more than 15,000 full-length human and mouse cDNA sequences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1479 12477932
2015 The BioPlex Network: A Systematic Exploration of the Human Interactome. Cell 1118 26186194
2017 Architecture of the human interactome defines protein communities and disease networks. Nature 1085 28514442
2014 A proteome-scale map of the human interactome network. Cell 977 25416956
2002 Killing activity of neutrophils is mediated through activation of proteases by K+ flux. Nature 851 11907569
2020 A reference map of the human binary protein interactome. Nature 849 32296183
2021 Dual proteome-scale networks reveal cell-specific remodeling of the human interactome. Cell 705 33961781
2001 Human cathelicidin, hCAP-18, is processed to the antimicrobial peptide LL-37 by extracellular cleavage with proteinase 3. Blood 672 11389039
2011 Phylogenetic-based propagation of functional annotations within the Gene Ontology consortium. Briefings in bioinformatics 656 21873635
2008 Large-scale proteomics and phosphoproteomics of urinary exosomes. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology : JASN 607 19056867
2003 Disruption of the CXCR4/CXCL12 chemotactic interaction during hematopoietic stem cell mobilization induced by GCSF or cyclophosphamide. The Journal of clinical investigation 606 12531874
1994 Oligo-capping: a simple method to replace the cap structure of eukaryotic mRNAs with oligoribonucleotides. Gene 492 8125298
2004 The status, quality, and expansion of the NIH full-length cDNA project: the Mammalian Gene Collection (MGC). Genome research 438 15489334
1992 CG-4, a new bipotential glial cell line from rat brain, is capable of differentiating in vitro into either mature oligodendrocytes or type-2 astrocytes. Journal of neuroscience research 396 1613821
2001 Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (CD106) is cleaved by neutrophil proteases in the bone marrow following hematopoietic progenitor cell mobilization by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. Blood 373 11520773
2017 CG dinucleotide suppression enables antiviral defence targeting non-self RNA. Nature 329 28953888
2005 XIAP inhibits caspase-3 and -7 using two binding sites: evolutionarily conserved mechanism of IAPs. The EMBO journal 320 15650747
1995 Cell surface-bound elastase and cathepsin G on human neutrophils: a novel, non-oxidative mechanism by which neutrophils focus and preserve catalytic activity of serine proteinases. The Journal of cell biology 317 7593196
2007 Transgenerational stability of the Arabidopsis epigenome is coordinated by CG methylation. Cell 311 17803908
2001 Arabidopsis cmt3 chromomethylase mutations block non-CG methylation and silencing of an endogenous gene. Genes & development 300 11459824
2001 Characterization of the necrotic cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP-1): implication of lysosomal proteases. Cell death and differentiation 285 11536009
2018 Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Induce Endothelial Cell Activation and Tissue Factor Production Through Interleukin-1α and Cathepsin G. Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology 283 29976772
2000 Cathepsin G activates protease-activated receptor-4 in human platelets. The Journal of biological chemistry 276 10702240
1989 Antibiotic proteins of human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 257 2501794
2003 Role of CG and non-CG methylation in immobilization of transposons in Arabidopsis. Current biology : CB 232 12620192
2010 Proteomics characterization of extracellular space components in the human aorta. Molecular & cellular proteomics : MCP 231 20551380
1998 CG island methylation changes near the GSTP1 gene in prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia. Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology 227 9641498
1987 Molecular cloning of human cathepsin G: structural similarity to mast cell and cytotoxic T lymphocyte proteinases. Biochemistry 227 3304423
2015 MeCP2 binds to non-CG methylated DNA as neurons mature, influencing transcription and the timing of onset for Rett syndrome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 226 25870282
1999 Characterization of a novel giant scaffolding protein, CG-NAP, that anchors multiple signaling enzymes to centrosome and the golgi apparatus. The Journal of biological chemistry 216 10358086
2014 Extracellular matrix signatures of human primary metastatic colon cancers and their metastases to liver. BMC cancer 203 25037231
2020 Systems analysis of RhoGEF and RhoGAP regulatory proteins reveals spatially organized RAC1 signalling from integrin adhesions. Nature cell biology 194 32203420
2002 Centrosomal proteins CG-NAP and kendrin provide microtubule nucleation sites by anchoring gamma-tubulin ring complex. Molecular biology of the cell 190 12221128
2017 Characterization of the Extracellular Matrix of Normal and Diseased Tissues Using Proteomics. Journal of proteome research 185 28675934
1988 Cathepsin G is a strong platelet agonist released by neutrophils. The Biochemical journal 185 3390156
2008 Tandem repeats upstream of the Arabidopsis endogene SDC recruit non-CG DNA methylation and initiate siRNA spreading. Genes & development 182 18559476
1989 Elastase and cathepsin G of human monocytes. Quantification of cellular content, release in response to stimuli, and heterogeneity in elastase-mediated proteolytic activity. Journal of immunology (Baltimore, Md. : 1950) 176 2681419
2006 RNAi, DRD1, and histone methylation actively target developmentally important non-CG DNA methylation in arabidopsis. PLoS genetics 169 16741558
2005 DNA methylation profiling identifies CG methylation clusters in Arabidopsis genes. Current biology : CB 168 15668172
2000 Angiotensin II generation by mast cell alpha- and beta-chymases. Biochimica et biophysica acta 166 10899625
2009 Gene-centric association signals for lipids and apolipoproteins identified via the HumanCVD BeadChip. American journal of human genetics 164 19913121
1990 Isolation of TSH and LH/CG receptor cDNAs from human thyroid: regulation by tissue specific splicing. Molecular endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.) 161 2293030
1998 Syndecans, heparan sulfate proteoglycans, maintain the proteolytic balance of acute wound fluids. The Journal of biological chemistry 160 9565572
2018 Epigenetic activation of meiotic recombination near Arabidopsis thaliana centromeres via loss of H3K9me2 and non-CG DNA methylation. Genome research 139 29530927
2014 Dnmt1-independent CG methylation contributes to nucleosome positioning in diverse eukaryotes. Cell 136 24630728
2019 Structure of the zinc-finger antiviral protein in complex with RNA reveals a mechanism for selective targeting of CG-rich viral sequences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110 31719195
1988 Nonsense and missense mutations in hemophilia A: estimate of the relative mutation rate at CG dinucleotides. American journal of human genetics 107 2833855
2017 Similarity between soybean and Arabidopsis seed methylomes and loss of non-CG methylation does not affect seed development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106 29078418
2018 Mechanistic insights into plant SUVH family H3K9 methyltransferases and their binding to context-biased non-CG DNA methylation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93 30150382
2004 Duplex formation and the onset of helicity in poly d(CG)n oligonucleotides in a solvent-free environment. Journal of the American Chemical Society 79 15548010
1998 Coexpression of gonadotropic hormones and their corresponding FSH- and LH/CG-receptors in the human prostate. The Prostate 79 9582090
2004 The role of MET1 in RNA-directed de novo and maintenance methylation of CG dinucleotides. Plant molecular biology 76 15604652
2017 Human Luteinizing Hormone and Chorionic Gonadotropin Display Biased Agonism at the LH and LH/CG Receptors. Scientific reports 74 28424471
2021 CRISPR-based targeting of DNA methylation in Arabidopsis thaliana by a bacterial CG-specific DNA methyltransferase. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 66 34074795
2012 CG methylation. Epigenomics 66 23244310
2001 The role of chorionic gonadotropin (CG) in blastocyst implantation. Archives of medical research 62 11750740
2018 Structural basis for the ability of MBD domains to bind methyl-CG and TG sites in DNA. The Journal of biological chemistry 59 29567833
2013 Frenolicins C-G, pyranonaphthoquinones from Streptomyces sp. RM-4-15. Journal of natural products 59 23944931
2016 Arabidopsis male sexual lineage exhibits more robust maintenance of CG methylation than somatic tissues. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 57 27956643
2021 Repression of CTSG, ELANE and PRTN3-mediated histone H3 proteolytic cleavage promotes monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation. Nature immunology 56 34017121
2014 Calculated globulin (CG) as a screening test for antibody deficiency. Clinical and experimental immunology 56 24784320
2005 UVR-induced G-C to C-G transversions from oxidative DNA damage. Mutation research 56 15748636
2008 The structures of non-CG-repeat Z-DNAs co-crystallized with the Z-DNA-binding domain, hZ alpha(ADAR1). Nucleic acids research 55 19074195
2013 Intronic non-CG DNA hydroxymethylation and alternative mRNA splicing in honey bees. BMC genomics 53 24079845
2007 Biochemical characterization and modulation of LH/CG-receptor during human trophoblast differentiation. Journal of cellular physiology 53 17458905
2020 Transposon age and non-CG methylation. Nature communications 51 32144266
2014 CHARMM-GUI PACE CG Builder for solution, micelle, and bilayer coarse-grained simulations. Journal of chemical information and modeling 51 24624945
2012 Conformational sampling of peptides in the presence of protein crowders from AA/CG-multiscale simulations. The journal of physical chemistry. B 51 22429139
2018 Large-scale comparative epigenomics reveals hierarchical regulation of non-CG methylation in Arabidopsis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 48 29339507
1993 Standardization of protein immunoprocedures. Choriogonadotropin (CG). Scandinavian journal of clinical and laboratory investigation. Supplementum 48 8378750
2019 Establishment, maintenance, and biological roles of non-CG methylation in plants. Essays in biochemistry 45 31652316
2021 Neuronal non-CG methylation is an essential target for MeCP2 function. Molecular cell 44 33561390
2018 Caloric restriction mitigates age-associated hippocampal differential CG and non-CG methylation. Neurobiology of aging 44 29631215
2017 Allele-specific non-CG DNA methylation marks domains of active chromatin in female mouse brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 42 28320934
2011 The dinucleotide CG as a genomic signalling module. Journal of molecular biology 42 21295585
1995 Distinct CG and CNG DNA methyltransferases in Pisum sativum. The Plant journal : for cell and molecular biology 41 7757118
2021 Non-CG methylation and multiple histone profiles associate child abuse with immune and small GTPase dysregulation. Nature communications 40 33602921
2016 Arabidopsis ANAC069 binds to C[A/G]CG[T/G] sequences to negatively regulate salt and osmotic stress tolerance. Plant molecular biology 39 27975189
1995 Evidence for DAPI intercalation in CG sites of DNA oligomer [d(CGACGTCG)]2: a 1H NMR study. Nucleic acids research 38 7753623
2021 Ectopic targeting of CG DNA methylation in Arabidopsis with the bacterial SssI methyltransferase. Nature communications 37 34035251
2019 Starch nanoparticles for delivery of the histone deacetylase inhibitor CG-1521 in breast cancer treatment. International journal of nanomedicine 37 30863064
2016 Cooperation between the H3K27me3 Chromatin Mark and Non-CG Methylation in Epigenetic Regulation. Plant physiology 37 27535791
1994 CG-1, a parsley light-induced DNA-binding protein. Plant molecular biology 37 8075408
2019 CG dinucleotides enhance promoter activity independent of DNA methylation. Genome research 36 30709850
2021 Histone H1 prevents non-CG methylation-mediated small RNA biogenesis in Arabidopsis heterochromatin. eLife 34 34850679
2016 Non-CG DNA methylation is a biomarker for assessing endodermal differentiation capacity in pluripotent stem cells. Nature communications 34 26822956
2015 COMT Val158Met and 5-HT1A-R -1019 C/G polymorphisms: effects on the negative symptom response to clozapine. Pharmacogenomics 34 25560469
1997 Expression of Krox proteins during differentiation of the O-2A progenitor cell line CG-4. Journal of neurochemistry 34 9109517
1996 The LH/CG and FSH receptors: different molecular forms and intracellular traffic. Molecular and cellular endocrinology 33 9027354
2007 Characterization of chitinase-like proteins (Cg-Clp1 and Cg-Clp2) involved in immune defence of the mollusc Crassostrea gigas. The FEBS journal 31 17608806
1988 Comparison of the B- and Z-form hairpin loop structures formed by d(CG)5T4(CG)5. Biochemistry 31 3196693
2003 Altering dietary protein type and quantity reduces urinary albumin excretion without affecting plasma glucose concentrations in BKS.cg-m +Lepr db/+Lepr db (db/db) mice. The Journal of nutrition 30 12612136
2023 NSD1 deposits histone H3 lysine 36 dimethylation to pattern non-CG DNA methylation in neurons. Molecular cell 29 37098340
2023 CTSG Suppresses Colorectal Cancer Progression through Negative Regulation of Akt/mTOR/Bcl2 Signaling Pathway. International journal of biological sciences 29 37151875
2005 Centrosome-targeting region of CG-NAP causes centrosome amplification by recruiting cyclin E-cdk2 complex. Genes to cells : devoted to molecular & cellular mechanisms 29 15670215
2021 Empagliflozin Induces White Adipocyte Browning and Modulates Mitochondrial Dynamics in KK Cg-Ay/J Mice and Mouse Adipocytes. Frontiers in physiology 28 34777009
2019 HTLV-1 contains a high CG dinucleotide content and is susceptible to the host antiviral protein ZAP. Retrovirology 28 31842935
2021 Bioinformatics Analyses Indicate That Cathepsin G (CTSG) is a Potential Immune-Related Biomarker in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC). OncoTargets and therapy 26 33658795
1993 Luminescence luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin (LH/CG) bioassay: measurement of serum bioactive LH/CG during early pregnancy in human and macaque. Biology of reproduction 26 8286613
1993 Human chorionic gonadotrophin (CG)-induced down-regulation of the rat luteal LH/CG receptor results in part from the down-regulation of its synthesis, involving increased alternative processing of the primary transcript. Journal of molecular endocrinology 26 8484864
2005 Biological activities of recombinant equine luteinizing hormone/chorionic gonadotropin (eLH/CG) expressed in Sf9 and Mimic insect cell lines. Journal of molecular endocrinology 25 15691877
2018 Profiling of aberrant DNA methylation in acute myeloid leukemia reveals subclasses of CG-rich regions with epigenetic or genetic association. Leukemia 24 29925905
2022 Conditional GWAS of non-CG transposon methylation in Arabidopsis thaliana reveals major polymorphisms in five genes. PLoS genetics 23 36084135
2012 Transgenerational maintenance of transgene body CG but not CHG and CHH methylation. Epigenetics 23 22863736
2011 Human nucleosomes: special role of CG dinucleotides and Alu-nucleosomes. BMC genomics 22 21627783
2001 Selective intercalation of charge neutral intercalators into GG and CG steps: implication of HOMO-LUMO interaction for sequence-selective drug intercalation into DNA. Journal of the American Chemical Society 21 11403601
2001 Differentiation of bipolar CG-4 line oligodendrocytes is associated with regulation of CREB, MAP kinase and PKC signalling pathways. Neuroscience research 21 11672834
2011 The ncgl1108 (PheP (Cg)) gene encodes a new L-Phe transporter in Corynebacterium glutamicum. Applied microbiology and biotechnology 20 21468701
1998 Comparison of the solution structures of intramolecular DNA triple helices containing adjacent and non-adjacent CG.C+ triplets. Nucleic acids research 20 9685482
2020 Developmental remodelling of non-CG methylation at satellite DNA repeats. Nucleic acids research 19 33271598
2018 Modification of the aminopyridine unit of 2'-deoxyaminopyridinyl-pseudocytidine allowing triplex formation at CG interruptions in homopurine sequences. Nucleic acids research 19 30102410
2017 H3K23me1 is an evolutionarily conserved histone modification associated with CG DNA methylation in Arabidopsis. The Plant journal : for cell and molecular biology 19 28182313
2016 Conserved hemopoietic transcription factor Cg-SCL delineates hematopoiesis of Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Fish & shellfish immunology 19 26915307
2019 Structural analyses reveal that MBD3 is a methylated CG binder. The FEBS journal 18 30980593
2019 CG hypomethylation leads to complex changes in DNA methylation and transpositional burst of diverse transposable elements in callus cultures of rice. The Plant journal : for cell and molecular biology 18 31529551
2018 Oligonucleotide Determination via Peptide Nucleic Acid Macromolecular Imprinting in an Electropolymerized CG-Rich Artificial Oligomer Analogue. ACS applied materials & interfaces 18 30071156
2010 CG base pair recognition within DNA triple helices by modified N-methylpyrrolo-dC nucleosides. Organic & biomolecular chemistry 18 20835452
2022 Canalization of genome-wide transcriptional activity in Arabidopsis thaliana accessions by MET1-dependent CG methylation. Genome biology 17 36539836
2016 Bioassays for TSH Receptor Autoantibodies, from FRTL-5 Cells to TSH Receptor-LH/CG Receptor Chimeras: The Contribution of Leonard D. Kohn. Frontiers in endocrinology 17 27504107
2015 Resistin - 420 C/G polymorphism and serum resistin level in Iranian patients with gestational diabetes mellitus. Journal of diabetes and metabolic disorders 17 25945322
2010 Human non-CG methylation: are human stem cells plant-like? Epigenetics 17 20647766
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2015 Depletion of CG-Specific Methylation in Mycoplasma hyorhinis Genomic DNA after Host Cell Invasion. PloS one 14 26544880
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