Affinage

GAL

Galanin peptides · UniProt P22466

Round 2 corrected
Length
123 aa
Mass
13.3 kDa
Annotated
2026-04-28
130 papers in source corpus 15 papers cited in narrative 15 extracted findings

Mechanistic narrative

Synthesis pass · prose summary of the discoveries below

Galanin (GAL) is a neuropeptide that functions as a widespread neuromodulator and endocrine regulator, controlling neurotransmitter release, hormone secretion, smooth muscle tone, and sexual behavior through three G protein-coupled receptors (GALR1–3). Human GAL is a 30-amino acid non-amidated peptide processed from a precursor that also yields GMAP; it signals via GALR1-coupled Gi/o inhibition of adenylate cyclase and GALR2-coupled Gαq/11 activation of phospholipase C, while spexin serves as an additional endogenous GALR2/3 ligand (PMID:7524088, PMID:9685625, PMID:24517231). GAL expression is transcriptionally upregulated in sensory neurons after peripheral nerve injury in a leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF)-dependent manner, and within the medial preoptic nucleus GAL mediates gonadal steroid-regulated sexual behavior (PMID:8951409, PMID:9928171). In head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, nerve-derived GAL activates GALR2 on cancer cells to drive an NFATC2–COX-2–PGE2 signaling cascade that promotes perineural invasion and a neuritogenic feedback loop (PMID:25917569).

Mechanistic history

Synthesis pass · year-by-year structured walk · 9 steps
  1. 1986 Medium

    Mapping GAL peptide distribution in human peripheral tissues established that galanin is not solely a CNS neuropeptide but is broadly expressed in gastrointestinal and genitourinary nerve fibers, implying roles in smooth muscle regulation and neurocrine signaling.

    Evidence Radioimmunoassay, immunocytochemistry, and gel chromatography in human GI and genitourinary tissues identifying two molecular forms and nerve-fiber localization

    PMID:2423990 PMID:2427385

    Open questions at the time
    • Functional consequences of galanin on peripheral smooth muscle in human tissues were not tested
    • Identity of the two molecular forms was not resolved at the sequence level
  2. 1987 Medium

    Developmental and ultrastructural studies showed GAL is packaged in large dense-cored vesicles for regulated secretion and is expressed in defined developmental windows in spinal cord and DRG, establishing it as a regulated neuropeptide with potential developmental roles.

    Evidence Immunohistochemistry at light and electron microscopy levels in rat/human developing spinal cord, DRG, and human sweat glands

    PMID:2444569 PMID:2447134

    Open questions at the time
    • Functional role of galanin in spinal cord development was not tested
    • Secretion dynamics were not measured
  3. 1990 Medium

    Colocalization of GAL with vasopressin in human hypothalamic magnocellular neurons suggested a neuromodulatory role in neuroendocrine circuits controlling fluid balance and hormone release.

    Evidence Dual immunohistochemistry on human post-mortem hypothalamus with cell counting across nuclei

    PMID:1698834

    Open questions at the time
    • Functional interaction between galanin and AVP release was not demonstrated
    • Single study on post-mortem tissue
  4. 1991 High

    Isolation and complete sequencing of human GAL from intestine and pituitary resolved a longstanding species discrepancy: human galanin is a 30-residue non-amidated peptide (unlike amidated porcine/rat forms) that retains full biological activity.

    Evidence Peptide purification, Edman degradation, mass spectrometry from human gut and pituitary; synthetic peptide bioassay on rat fundus

    PMID:1710578 PMID:1722333

    Open questions at the time
    • Whether the 19-residue truncated form has distinct biological activity was not resolved
    • Receptor-binding affinity differences between amidated and non-amidated forms were not quantified
  5. 1994 High

    Cloning of GALR1 identified the first high-affinity galanin receptor as a Gi/Go-coupled GPCR that mediates adenylate cyclase inhibition, providing the molecular basis for galanin's inhibitory neuromodulatory actions.

    Evidence Expression cloning from Bowes melanoma cDNA, radioligand binding, and pertussis toxin-sensitive cAMP inhibition in COS cells

    PMID:7524088

    Open questions at the time
    • Physiological functions assignable specifically to GALR1 versus other receptor subtypes were unknown
    • Endogenous coupling partners in neurons were not identified
  6. 1995 High

    Peripheral nerve injury triggers dramatic upregulation of GAL in DRG sensory neurons, and this response requires LIF signaling, establishing an injury-responsive transcriptional program for galanin.

    Evidence Immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization in LIF-knockout versus wild-type mice after sciatic nerve axotomy; resiniferatoxin injury model in rat DRG

    PMID:8595209 PMID:8951409

    Open questions at the time
    • Downstream transcription factors mediating LIF-dependent GAL induction were not identified
    • Functional consequence of GAL upregulation for nerve regeneration was not directly tested
  7. 1998 High

    Cloning of GALR2 revealed a second receptor with dual Gαq/11 and Gαi/o coupling, explaining galanin's ability to both stimulate PLC/calcium signaling and inhibit cAMP, while behavioral studies established GAL as a steroid-regulated mediator of sexual behavior in the medial preoptic nucleus.

    Evidence GALR2 cloning with calcium mobilization and cAMP assays in HEK-293 cells; intracerebral GAL microinjection and immunoneutralization in gonadectomized rats

    PMID:9685625 PMID:9928171

    Open questions at the time
    • Relative contributions of GALR1 versus GALR2 in MPN sexual behavior circuits were not dissected
    • GALR3 functional characterization was still incomplete
  8. 2014 High

    Identification of spexin as an endogenous GALR2/3 ligand with higher GALR3 potency than galanin itself redefined the receptor system as multi-ligand and revealed that GAL, spexin, and kisspeptin gene families co-evolved from ancestral duplications.

    Evidence Cross-species calcium mobilization and cAMP assays (human, Xenopus, zebrafish GALR2/3) combined with synteny and phylogenetic reconstruction

    PMID:24517231

    Open questions at the time
    • Physiological contexts in which spexin versus GAL preferentially activates GALR2/3 remain undefined
    • Structural basis for spexin selectivity over GALR1 was not determined
  9. 2015 High

    A cancer-relevant signaling circuit was delineated in which nerve-derived GAL activates GALR2 on tumor cells to engage NFATC2–COX-2–PGE2 signaling, promoting perineural invasion and a neuritogenic feedback loop—the first defined oncogenic pathway for galanin.

    Evidence In vivo perineural invasion model in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma with GALR2 knockdown/overexpression, NFATC2 reporter assays, and COX-2/PGE2 pathway inhibition

    PMID:25917569

    Open questions at the time
    • Generalizability to other cancer types with perineural invasion was not established
    • Whether GALR1 or GALR3 counteracts or cooperates with GALR2 in this context is unknown

Open questions

Synthesis pass · forward-looking unresolved questions
  • Major unresolved questions include the specific physiological functions of GAL upregulation during nerve regeneration, the structural determinants of ligand selectivity across GALR1–3, and whether the GAL–GALR2 oncogenic axis operates beyond head and neck cancer.
  • No direct nerve regeneration phenotype demonstrated in GAL-knockout animals
  • No crystal/cryo-EM structure of any GALR–ligand complex
  • GALR3-specific physiological roles remain largely uncharacterized

Mechanism profile

Synthesis pass · controlled-vocabulary classification · explore literature graph →
Molecular activity
GO:0048018 receptor ligand activity 5
Localization
GO:0005576 extracellular region 4 GO:0031410 cytoplasmic vesicle 1
Pathway
R-HSA-112316 Neuronal System 4 R-HSA-162582 Signal Transduction 3 R-HSA-1643685 Disease 1
Partners
AVPGALR1GALR2GALR3NFATC2

Evidence

Reading pass · 15 per-paper findings extracted from the source corpus
Year Finding Method Journal Conf PMIDs
1991 Human galanin (GAL) exists in two molecular forms: a 30-amino acid non-amidated peptide and a 19-amino acid truncated form, both sharing the N-terminal 15 residues with other mammalian galanins but differing at the C-terminus (human galanin lacks C-terminal amidation unlike porcine/rat galanin). Both forms were isolated from human large intestine and confirmed by amino acid analysis, sequence analysis, and mass spectrometry. Peptide isolation, amino acid sequencing, mass spectrometry FEBS letters High 1710578
1991 Human galanin isolated from pituitary is a 30-residue non-amidated neuropeptide (C-terminal serine free acid), confirmed by Edman degradation and mass spectrometry. Synthetic human galanin retains full biological activity on isolated rat fundus muscle strips, demonstrating functional equivalence of the non-amidated form. Peptide isolation, Edman degradation, mass spectrometry, bioassay on smooth muscle Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America High 1722333
1986 Galanin immunoreactivity is distributed throughout the human and rat gastrointestinal tract, predominantly in the muscle layer, with two distinct molecular forms identified in humans by gel chromatography and HPLC, one of which likely has a C-terminal extension relative to porcine galanin. Radioimmunoassay, gel chromatography, HPLC with two-antibody characterization Gastroenterology Medium 2427385
1986 Galanin is present in substantial quantities in human genitourinary tract (highest in vas deferens, corpus cavernosum, vagina, cervix), localizing to nerve fibers within smooth muscle and around blood vessels, suggesting a neurocrine role in regulating smooth muscle tone and blood flow. Two molecular forms were detected in human tissue by gel chromatography. Radioimmunoassay, immunocytochemistry, gel chromatography Peptides Medium 2423990
1987 Galanin-immunoreactive nerve fibers are present around human eccrine sweat glands, with immunoreactivity localized to large dense-cored vesicles at the ultrastructural level, indicating peptidergic neurosecretion. Immunocytochemistry (light and electron microscopy) The Histochemical journal Medium 2444569
1987 Galanin-immunoreactive neurons are present throughout the developing rat and human spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia, appearing earlier in motor than in sensory or autonomic regions, with a pronounced perinatal increase of galanin-immunoreactive fibers in dorsal horn coinciding with DRG cell body expression. Immunohistochemistry in developmental series (rat and human tissue) The Journal of comparative neurology Medium 2447134
1990 In the human hypothalamus, galanin-immunoreactive neurons are concentrated in suprachiasmatic, supraoptic, paraventricular, arcuate, and other nuclei. Galanin colocalizes predominantly with arginine vasopressin (AVP) in supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei and to a lesser extent with oxytocin, demonstrated in adjacent paraffin sections. Immunohistochemistry with two antibodies on human post-mortem brain The Journal of comparative neurology Medium 1698834
1994 A functional human galanin receptor (GALR1) was cloned from a Bowes melanoma cDNA library. The receptor is a 349-amino acid GPCR with seven transmembrane domains that binds human, porcine, and rat galanin with high affinity (Kd in nanomolar range) and mediates galanin inhibition of adenylate cyclase through pertussis toxin-sensitive Gi/Go proteins. cDNA expression cloning, radioligand binding assay, adenylate cyclase inhibition assay in COS cells Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America High 7524088
1995 Galanin (GAL) and its co-encoded peptide GMAP (galanin message-associated peptide) expression is dramatically upregulated in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons following sciatic nerve axotomy (50–60% of profiles become immunoreactive). Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) is required for this upregulation, as LIF-deficient mice show 65–70% reduction in GAL/GMAP-positive neuron profiles after axotomy. Immunohistochemistry in LIF-knockout vs. wild-type mice after axotomy Experimental brain research High 8951409
1995 Following systemic resiniferatoxin (RTX, capsaicin analogue) treatment, galanin mRNA is upregulated ~3-fold in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons (from ~10% to ~30% of neurons positive), with parallel increases in GMAP immunoreactivity, demonstrating that capsaicin-sensitive sensory neuron injury triggers GAL gene transcriptional upregulation ('messenger plasticity'). In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry in rat DRG Neuroreport Medium 8595209
1998 Galanin (GAL) microinjection into the medial preoptic nucleus (MPN) stimulates both male-typical and female-typical sexual behaviors in rats; immunoneutralization of endogenous GAL within the MPN with anti-GAL serum inhibits male-typical sexual behavior. More GAL-immunoreactive cells exist in the MPN of male than female rats, and gonadal steroids (estrogen, testosterone) increase the number and size of GAL-IR cells and their processes within the MPN. Intracerebral microinjection, immunoneutralization, immunohistochemistry in gonadectomized and hormone-replaced rats Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences Medium 9928171
1998 Human GALR2 galanin receptor is a 387-amino acid GPCR encoded on chromosome 17q25.3. It couples to both Gαq/11 (stimulating phospholipase C and increasing intracellular calcium) and Gαi/o (inhibiting cAMP accumulation). It binds galanin and N-terminal galanin fragments with high affinity but not C-terminal fragments, and is widely expressed in CNS and peripheral tissues. Genomic/cDNA cloning, FISH chromosomal mapping, radioligand binding, calcium mobilization assay, cAMP inhibition assay in HEK-293 cells Brain research. Molecular brain research High 9685625
2002 Galanin inhibits acetylcholine release in the central nervous system and modulates growth hormone, prolactin, and luteinizing hormone release; inhibits glucose-induced insulin secretion; and affects gastrointestinal motility. GAL expression is elevated by estrogen, neuronal activation, denervation/nerve injury, and during development. Three receptor subtypes (GALR1, GALR2, GALR3) mediate these effects. Review synthesizing multiple experimental studies Current drug targets. CNS and neurological disorders Medium 12769595
2014 Spexin (SPX) activates galanin receptor subtypes GALR2 and GALR3 (but not GALR1), with higher potency toward GALR3 than galanin itself. Syntenic and phylogenetic analysis shows that spexin, GAL, and kisspeptin genes arose by local duplications before two rounds of whole-genome duplication, and their cognate receptors co-evolved. This was validated by functional assays in human, Xenopus, and zebrafish GALR2/3. Synteny analysis, phylogenetic reconstruction, ligand-receptor functional assays across species (calcium mobilization/cAMP) Endocrinology High 24517231
2015 In head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, galanin (GAL) secreted by perineural nerves activates GALR2 on cancer cells, triggering NFATC2-mediated transcription of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and GAL itself. Prostaglandin E2 downstream of COX-2 promotes cancer invasion, and GAL released by cancer cells induces neuritogenesis in a feedback loop that facilitates perineural invasion (PNI). Demonstrated using an in vivo PNI model. In vivo perineural invasion model, receptor knockdown/overexpression, transcription factor (NFATC2) assays, COX-2/PGE2 pathway analysis Nature communications High 25917569

Source papers

Stage 0 corpus · 130 papers · ranked by NIH iCite citations
Year Title Journal Citations PMID
2005 GMAP: a genomic mapping and alignment program for mRNA and EST sequences. Bioinformatics (Oxford, England) 1679 15728110
2002 Generation and initial analysis of more than 15,000 full-length human and mouse cDNA sequences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1479 12477932
2015 The BioPlex Network: A Systematic Exploration of the Human Interactome. Cell 1118 26186194
2017 Architecture of the human interactome defines protein communities and disease networks. Nature 1085 28514442
2014 A proteome-scale map of the human interactome network. Cell 977 25416956
2020 A reference map of the human binary protein interactome. Nature 849 32296183
2021 Dual proteome-scale networks reveal cell-specific remodeling of the human interactome. Cell 705 33961781
2016 Fap2 Mediates Fusobacterium nucleatum Colorectal Adenocarcinoma Enrichment by Binding to Tumor-Expressed Gal-GalNAc. Cell host & microbe 656 27512904
2011 Phylogenetic-based propagation of functional annotations within the Gene Ontology consortium. Briefings in bioinformatics 656 21873635
1993 Anti-pig IgM antibodies in human serum react predominantly with Gal(alpha 1-3)Gal epitopes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 516 7504304
1987 Evolutionary relationship between the natural anti-Gal antibody and the Gal alpha 1----3Gal epitope in primates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 513 2434954
2010 Genome-wide association study of major depressive disorder: new results, meta-analysis, and lessons learned. Molecular psychiatry 347 21042317
1995 Transcriptional regulation in the yeast GAL gene family: a complex genetic network. FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 326 7601342
1994 Molecular cloning of a functional human galanin receptor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 314 7524088
2016 GMAP and GSNAP for Genomic Sequence Alignment: Enhancements to Speed, Accuracy, and Functionality. Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.) 309 27008021
2015 The alpha-gal story: lessons learned from connecting the dots. The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology 255 25747720
1994 Gal alpha (1,3)Gal, the major xenoantigen(s) recognised in pigs by human natural antibodies. Immunological reviews 253 7532618
1987 Ontogeny of peptide- and amine-containing neurones in motor, sensory, and autonomic regions of rat and human spinal cord, dorsal root ganglia, and rat skin. The Journal of comparative neurology 226 2447134
1987 The human natural anti-Gal IgG. III. The subtlety of immune tolerance in man as demonstrated by crossreactivity between natural anti-Gal and anti-B antibodies. The Journal of experimental medicine 205 2434599
2014 Coevolution of the spexin/galanin/kisspeptin family: Spexin activates galanin receptor type II and III. Endocrinology 188 24517231
2004 GMAP-210 recruits gamma-tubulin complexes to cis-Golgi membranes and is required for Golgi ribbon formation. Cell 182 15294158
2013 Anti-Gal: an abundant human natural antibody of multiple pathogeneses and clinical benefits. Immunology 181 23578170
2008 Genetic susceptibility to heroin addiction: a candidate gene association study. Genes, brain, and behavior 176 18518925
2009 Gene-centric association signals for lipids and apolipoproteins identified via the HumanCVD BeadChip. American journal of human genetics 164 19913121
1999 GMAP-210, A cis-Golgi network-associated protein, is a minus end microtubule-binding protein. The Journal of cell biology 146 10189370
2004 Parallel inactivation of multiple GAL pathway genes and ecological diversification in yeasts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 145 15381776
2009 Ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis of HuR by heat shock. The EMBO journal 142 19322201
2009 Genetical genomic determinants of alcohol consumption in rats and humans. BMC biology 135 19874574
1996 Influence of leukemia inhibitory factor on galanin/GMAP and neuropeptide Y expression in mouse primary sensory neurons after axotomy. Experimental brain research 126 8951409
2000 Differential immune responses to alpha-gal epitopes on xenografts and allografts: implications for accommodation in xenotransplantation. The Journal of clinical investigation 121 10675356
2013 Inhibition of tumor angiogenesis and growth by a small-molecule multi-FGF receptor blocker with allosteric properties. Cancer cell 113 23597562
2010 Lethal skeletal dysplasia in mice and humans lacking the golgin GMAP-210. The New England journal of medicine 113 20089971
2008 Trivalent, Gal/GalNAc-containing ligands designed for the asialoglycoprotein receptor. Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry 109 18358727
1991 Human galanin: primary structure and identification of two molecular forms. FEBS letters 107 1710578
1998 A sensitive assay for measuring alpha-Gal epitope expression on cells by a monoclonal anti-Gal antibody. Transplantation 104 9583877
2019 Environmental and Molecular Drivers of the α-Gal Syndrome. Frontiers in immunology 95 31214181
1994 Gal alpha(1,3)Gal is the major xenoepitope expressed on pig endothelial cells recognized by naturally occurring cytotoxic human antibodies. Transplantation 93 7524207
1989 DNA bending by negative regulatory proteins: Gal and Lac repressors. Genes & development 92 2744457
1990 Galanin immunoreactive neurons in the human hypothalamus: colocalization with vasopressin-containing neurons. The Journal of comparative neurology 90 1698834
1987 Identification of erythrocyte Gal alpha 1-3Gal glycosphingolipids with a mouse monoclonal antibody, Gal-13. The Journal of biological chemistry 86 2435715
2015 Galanin modulates the neural niche to favour perineural invasion in head and neck cancer. Nature communications 84 25917569
1986 Distribution and molecular heterogeneity of galanin in human, pig, guinea pig, and rat gastrointestinal tracts. Gastroenterology 84 2427385
2009 Identification of new putative susceptibility genes for several psychiatric disorders by association analysis of regulatory and non-synonymous SNPs of 306 genes involved in neurotransmission and neurodevelopment. American journal of medical genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric genetics : the official publication of the International Society of Psychiatric Genetics 81 19086053
1986 Distribution of galanin immunoreactivity in the genitourinary tract of man and rat. Peptides 81 2423990
2020 Interactome Mapping Provides a Network of Neurodegenerative Disease Proteins and Uncovers Widespread Protein Aggregation in Affected Brains. Cell reports 79 32814053
2014 Brain galanin system genes interact with life stresses in depression-related phenotypes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 77 24706871
2005 Presence and elimination of the xenoantigen gal (alpha1, 3) gal in tissue-engineered heart valves. Tissue engineering 76 16144463
1984 Sequence of the Saccharomyces GAL region and its transcription in vivo. Journal of bacteriology 74 6715281
2010 Unravelling the gallic acid degradation pathway in bacteria: the gal cluster from Pseudomonas putida. Molecular microbiology 73 21219457
2001 Gal repressosome contains an antiparallel DNA loop. Nature structural biology 73 11323719
1991 Isolation and primary structure of pituitary human galanin, a 30-residue nonamidated neuropeptide. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 73 1722333
1987 The distribution of substance P-, CGRP-, galanin- and ANP-like immunoreactive nerves in human sweat glands. The Histochemical journal 73 2444569
1997 Transcription of glutamine synthetase genes (glnA and glnN) from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 is differently regulated in response to nitrogen availability. Journal of bacteriology 72 9098067
2008 Dissociation of heterotrimeric g proteins in cells. Science signaling 69 18577758
2006 Association of galanin haplotypes with alcoholism and anxiety in two ethnically distinct populations. Molecular psychiatry 67 16314872
1998 Molecular characterization, pharmacological properties and chromosomal localization of the human GALR2 galanin receptor. Brain research. Molecular brain research 66 9685625
2024 Graveoline attenuates D-GalN/LPS-induced acute liver injury via inhibition of JAK1/STAT3 signaling pathway. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie 63 39018876
2015 Characteristics of α-Gal epitope, anti-Gal antibody, α1,3 galactosyltransferase and its clinical exploitation (Review). International journal of molecular medicine 63 26531137
2002 Galanin: a biologically active peptide. Current drug targets. CNS and neurological disorders 63 12769595
2007 N-GAL: diagnosing AKI as soon as possible. Critical care (London, England) 60 18001501
2017 Antioxidation, anti-inflammation and anti-apoptosis by paeonol in LPS/d-GalN-induced acute liver failure in mice. International immunopharmacology 59 28282576
1999 Expression of the galanin receptor subtype Gal-R2 mRNA in the rat hypothalamus. Journal of chemical neuroanatomy 59 10450874
1996 Genomic organization and chromosomal mapping of the Gal beta 1,3GalNAc/Gal beta 1,4GlcNAc alpha 2,3-sialyltransferase. The Journal of biological chemistry 59 8557707
1994 A new type of glutamine synthetase in cyanobacteria: the protein encoded by the glnN gene supports nitrogen assimilation in Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803. Journal of bacteriology 53 7906687
2012 Detection of β-galactosidase activity: X-gal staining. Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.) 52 22639266
2007 A role of cell apoptosis in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nonlethal liver injury in D-galactosamine (D-GalN)-sensitized rats. Digestive diseases and sciences 51 17934810
2012 The effect of Gal expression on pig cells on the human T-cell xenoresponse. Xenotransplantation 49 22360754
2002 The overexpression of GMAP-210 blocks anterograde and retrograde transport between the ER and the Golgi apparatus. Traffic (Copenhagen, Denmark) 49 12383348
2019 Alpha-Gal-containing biologics and anaphylaxis. Allergology international : official journal of the Japanese Society of Allergology 48 31053502
2019 Exopolysaccharides from Lactobacillus buchneri TCP016 Attenuate LPS- and d-GalN-Induced Liver Injury by Modulating the Gut Microbiota. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 48 31553177
2021 The α-Gal Syndrome and Potential Mechanisms. Frontiers in allergy 47 35386980
2005 Gal80 dimerization and the yeast GAL gene switch. Genetics 47 15695361
2022 The Meat of the Matter: Understanding and Managing Alpha-Gal Syndrome. ImmunoTargets and therapy 46 36134173
2007 Characterization of natural human anti-non-gal antibodies and their effect on activation of porcine gal-deficient endothelial cells. Transplantation 46 17667817
2008 Differential roles of JNK in ConA/GalN and ConA-induced liver injury in mice. The American journal of pathology 44 18772342
2015 The golgin GMAP-210 is required for efficient membrane trafficking in the early secretory pathway. Journal of cell science 42 25717001
2000 The X-gal caution in neural transplantation studies. Cell transplantation 42 11144962
2021 Tick salivary gland extract induces alpha-gal syndrome in alpha-gal deficient mice. Immunity, inflammation and disease 39 34034363
2014 Oxidative stress promotes D-GalN/LPS-induced acute hepatotoxicity by increasing glycogen synthase kinase 3β activity. Inflammation research : official journal of the European Histamine Research Society ... [et al.] 39 24531650
1997 Down-regulation of Gal alpha(1,3)Gal expression by alpha1,2-fucosyltransferase: further characterization of alpha1,2-fucosyltransferase transgenic mice. Transplantation 39 9275118
2012 Induced anti-non gal antibodies in human xenograft recipients. Transplantation 38 22146315
2018 An Expanded Heterologous GAL Promoter Collection for Diauxie-Inducible Expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. ACS synthetic biology 37 29301066
2022 Orientin Attenuated d-GalN/LPS-Induced Liver Injury through the Inhibition of Oxidative Stress via Nrf2/Keap1 Pathway. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 36 35729734
2007 Induction of the gal pathway and cellulase genes involves no transcriptional inducer function of the galactokinase in Hypocrea jecorina. The Journal of biological chemistry 36 17452322
2004 DNA trajectory in the Gal repressosome. Genes & development 36 15289461
1997 A novel glycosphingolipid expressed in pig kidney: Gal alpha 1-3Lewis(x) hexaglycosylceramide. Glycoconjugate journal 36 9076511
1995 Increased levels of GMAP, VIP and nitric oxide synthase, and their mRNAs, in lumbar dorsal root ganglia of the rat following systemic resiniferatoxin treatment. Neuroreport 36 8595209
2018 Deletion of caveolin-1 attenuates LPS/GalN-induced acute liver injury in mice. Journal of cellular and molecular medicine 34 30134043
2018 Piceatannol attenuates D-GalN/LPS-induced hepatoxicity in mice: Involvement of ER stress, inflammation and oxidative stress. International immunopharmacology 34 30173053
2014 Pretreatment of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) ameliorates D-GalN/LPS induced acute liver failure through TLR4 signaling pathway. International journal of clinical and experimental pathology 34 25400741
2003 "Antiparallel" DNA loop in gal repressosome visualized by atomic force microscopy. Journal of molecular biology 34 14596799
2000 The Synechococcus strain PCC 7942 glnN product (glutamine synthetase III) helps recovery from prolonged nitrogen chlorosis. Journal of bacteriology 34 10986271
1997 Repression and activation of promoter-bound RNA polymerase activity by Gal repressor. Journal of molecular biology 34 9325090
2021 Prevention of D-GalN/LPS-induced ALI by 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid through PXR-mediated inhibition of autophagy degradation. Cell death & disease 33 33986260
2020 α-Gal-Based Vaccines: Advances, Opportunities, and Perspectives. Trends in parasitology 33 32948455
2015 Cerium oxide nanoparticles alleviate oxidative stress and decreases Nrf-2/HO-1 in D-GALN/LPS induced hepatotoxicity. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie 33 26211586
1994 Epitope mapping of region 11-70 of ovalbumin (Gal d I) using five synthetic peptides. International archives of allergy and immunology 33 7950407
1981 Escherichia coli gal operon proteins made after prophage lambda induction. Journal of bacteriology 33 6268612
1971 Isolation of the gal repressor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 33 4942917
2020 Vaccination with Alpha-Gal Protects Against Mycobacterial Infection in the Zebrafish Model of Tuberculosis. Vaccines 32 32344637
2020 'Doc, will I ever eat steak again?': diagnosis and management of alpha-gal syndrome. Current opinion in pediatrics 31 33009122
2012 Triptolide attenuate the oxidative stress induced by LPS/D-GalN in mice. Journal of cellular biochemistry 31 22065336
2002 Depletion of anti-gal antibodies in baboons by intravenous therapy with bovine serum albumin conjugated to gal oligosaccharides. Transplantation 31 11792992
2021 Ginsenoside Rb1 Reduces D-GalN/LPS-induced Acute Liver Injury by Regulating TLR4/NF-κB Signaling and NLRP3 Inflammasome. Journal of clinical and translational hepatology 29 35836757
2020 LAG-3 and GAL-3 in Endometrial Carcinoma: Emerging Candidates for Immunotherapy. International journal of gynecological pathology : official journal of the International Society of Gynecological Pathologists 29 32267656
2019 FOXD1 and Gal-3 Form a Positive Regulatory Loop to Regulate Lung Cancer Aggressiveness. Cancers 29 31795213
2011 Complement and the alternative pathway play an important role in LPS/D-GalN-induced fulminant hepatic failure. PloS one 29 22069473
2016 BML-111 Protected LPS/D-GalN-Induced Acute Liver Injury in Rats. International journal of molecular sciences 28 27420055
2021 Alpha-Gal Syndrome: Involvement of Amblyomma americanum α-D-Galactosidase and β-1,4 Galactosyltransferase Enzymes in α-Gal Metabolism. Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology 27 34926322
2020 Topical α-gal nanoparticles accelerate diabetic wound healing. Experimental dermatology 27 32027409
2015 Identification and Characterization of GAL-021 as a Novel Breathing Control Modulator. Anesthesiology 27 26352381
2019 Screening Bacterial Colonies Using X-Gal and IPTG: α-Complementation. Cold Spring Harbor protocols 26 31792144
2004 Sugar utilisation and conservation of the gal-lac gene cluster in Streptococcus thermophilus. Systematic and applied microbiology 26 15053316
1985 Gal-Gal pyelonephritis Escherichia coli pili linear immunogenic and antigenic epitopes. The Journal of experimental medicine 26 2580037
2011 A test of the coordinated expression hypothesis for the origin and maintenance of the GAL cluster in yeast. PloS one 25 21966486
2008 The anti-non-gal xenoantibody response to xenoantigens on gal knockout pig cells is encoded by a restricted number of germline progenitors. American journal of transplantation : official journal of the American Society of Transplantation and the American Society of Transplant Surgeons 24 18671678
2021 Probiotic Bacteria with High Alpha-Gal Content Protect Zebrafish against Mycobacteriosis. Pharmaceuticals (Basel, Switzerland) 23 34208966
2020 Quercetin Attenuates d-GaLN-Induced L02 Cell Damage by Suppressing Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Apoptosis via Inhibition of HMGB1. Frontiers in pharmacology 23 32431618
2017 AMPK activation ameliorates D-GalN/LPS-induced acute liver failure by upregulating Foxo3A to induce autophagy. Experimental cell research 23 28689811
2017 Autophagy and ER stress in LPS/GalN‑induced acute liver injury. Molecular medicine reports 23 28901440
2005 Reducing Gal expression on the pig organ - a retrospective review. Xenotransplantation 23 15943776
2020 Research progress on the role of gal-3 in cardio/cerebrovascular diseases. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie 22 33378967
2016 Amoebiasis vaccine development: A snapshot on E. histolytica with emphasis on perspectives of Gal/GalNAc lectin. International journal of biological macromolecules 22 27181579
1998 Gonadal steroid-dependent GAL-IR cells within the medial preoptic nucleus (MPN) and the stimulatory effects of GAL within the MPN on sexual behaviors. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 22 9928171
1998 Nitrogen control of the glnN gene that codes for GS type III, the only glutamine synthetase in the cyanobacterium Pseudanabaena sp. PCC 6903. Molecular microbiology 22 9988484
2022 Association of Tim-3/Gal-9 Axis with NLRC4 Inflammasome in Glioma Malignancy: Tim-3/Gal-9 Induce the NLRC4 Inflammasome. International journal of molecular sciences 21 35216164
2020 The improvement effect of gastrodin on LPS/GalN-induced fulminant hepatitis via inhibiting inflammation and apoptosis and restoring autophagy. International immunopharmacology 21 32473572
2017 Elastin receptor (S-gal) occupancy by elastin peptides modulates T-cell response during murine emphysema. American journal of physiology. Lung cellular and molecular physiology 21 28572155
2017 MiR-19a Affects Hepatocyte Autophagy via Regulating lncRNA NBR2 and AMPK/PPARα in D-GalN/Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Hepatocytes. Journal of cellular biochemistry 21 28586153
2024 Tick bite-induced alpha-gal syndrome and immunologic responses in an alpha-gal deficient murine model. Frontiers in immunology 20 38390396